The Second Vatican Council

Please read LR, p. 343f.

There is little doubt that the influence of the Second Vatican Council has permeated the world wide Catholic community. This was in spite of the conflicts and tensions during the Council when there emerged, (in the words of Adrian Hastings, a reputed Catholic commentator of Vatican II documents,) “disagreements, the variety and genuine clash of attitudes, the redrafting of text after text to satisfy the requirements of different groups of Fathers”, (Adrian Hastings, A Concise Guide too the Documents of the Second Vatican Council, Volume One, London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 1968, p. 20f) and, later in the various interpretations of the documents that emerged from it. In regard to the latter McSweeney described the Council documents as “a monument to ambiguity; considered as a whole, they offer support for diverging and at times, incompatible theologies”. (Bill McSweeney, Roman Catholicism: The Search for Relevance, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1980, p. 138f.)

Also see Walter M. Abbott, ed., The Documents of Vatican II With Notes and Comments by Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox Authorities, New York: Guild Press, 1966.

Pope John XXIII formally inaugurated the Council on the 11th of October 1962 in accordance with his announcement on the 25th January 1959, of his intention to summon a council of bishops, within three months of his election as Pope.

The Council was officially convoked on the 25th December 1961. McSweeney informs us that the Catholic community responded to this announcement in a variety of ways:
a. Some were very curious.
b. Others were alarmed.

There were altogether four sessions, one session each year, of the Council, which went on until 8th December 1965.

After the first session of the Council, Pope John died and the election took place of his successor, Pope Paul VI, who continued the task of his predecessor.

At the time of the original announcement, according to McSweeney, Pope John XXIII did not have “any clear idea of what the Council should or could achieve”. It may be possible that McSweeney has overstated his point. Even if that is true, what is clear is that at least Pope John XXIII had not intended that the council should make any pronouncements about world religions, which they did.

The need for such a council according to Pope John was aggiornamento, which is updating the Catholic Church. Pope John saw the Catholic Church as outdated and not relevant in the context of modernization and of contemporary world events.

While the council was in progress Pope John expressed his desire for a statement about the Jews. The council, however, finally made several statements not only about Judaism but also about other religions.

Documents of Vatican II:

1. Constitution on Sacred Liturgy (Sacrosanctum Concilium) - 12/4/1963
2. Decree on Means of Social Communication (Inter Mirifica) - 12/4/1963
3. Dogmatic Constitution on the Church (Lumen Gentium) - 12/4/1963
4. Decree on the Churches of the Eastern Rite (Orientalium Ecclesiarum) - 11/21/1964
5. Decree on Ecumenism (Unitatis Redintegratio) - 11/21/1965
6. Decree on the Pastoral Office of Bishops (Christus Dominus) - 10/28/1965
7. Decree on Renewal of Religious Life (Perfectae Caritatis) - 10/28/1965
8. Decree on Priestly Training (Optatum Totius) - 10/28/1965
9. Declaration on Christian Education (Gravissum Educationis) - 10/28/1965
10. Declaration on the Relation to Non-Christian Religions (Nostra Aetate) - 10/28/1965
11. Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation (Dei Verbum) - 11/18/1965
12. Decree on Apostolate of Laity (Apostolicam Actuositatem) - 11/18/1965
13. Declaration on Religious Freedom (Dignitatis Humanae) - 12/7/1965
14. Decree on Mission Activity of the Church (Ad Gentes), - 12/7/1965
15. Decree on Ministry of Priests (Presbyterorum Ordinis) - 12/7/1965
16. Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World (Gaudium et Spes) - 12/7/1965

Visit: http://www.stjosef.at/council/

Nostra Aetate:

It is in the document called Nostra Aetate, A declaration on Catholic Church’s relation to Non-Christian religions, issued on October 28, 1965 – 43 years ago – that we read the contemporary Catholic position.

The concerns emphasised in that are:
1. A positive appreciation of other religions.

2. A need to establish dialogue with people of other religions.

3. Building bridges and promoting co-operation between people of different religions is considered as a vital and an urgent concern.

4. However Christianity – Catholicism – is considered as “a unique religion” that needs to be proclaimed to “the ends of the world”.

Questions to Explore:

1. Discuss the importance of the Second Vatican Council for contemporary Catholics.
2. Explain the major concerns expressed in the Nostra Aetate.
3. Explain the various seasons of the liturgical years of the Catholics and the important festivals of Christians.
4. What is Marion devotion? Explain.

Catholicism

Please read LR, pages 317-323, 330-344 and 345-358.

There are about:

Catholics 1 Billion
Protestants 800 Million
Orthodox 217 Million
Total around Around 2 Billion

Catholicism:

a. The word “catholic” means “universal”, “open to all”!
b. Part of the Western Church!
c. There are also certain “Christian Communities” from the East that are in communion with the Rome, accepting the Pope as the supreme head though worshipping with an Eastern Rite! Therefore: Catholics are Roman Catholics + Eastern Catholic Churches with Patriarchs!
d. Culturally the Catholic Church is diverse with European – West and East, African, Asian, American – Native American as well as South American!
e. Mass that is celebrated and the Pope’s authority creates the unifying effect on the “theologically and culturally diverse Catholic Church”.

Eastern Catholic Churches:

a. How did the split happen? Constantine (280-337 CE), the first Roman Emperor to embrace Christian faith moved his capital from Rome to a new capital and named it as Constantinople in 330 CE! Turks in 1453 CE changed this to Istanbul and established their rule!

b. From the councils in Ephesus (431 CE) and Chalcedon (451 CE) there was tension over what we would call Monophysite and Nestorian heresies. And in 1054 CE there was the mutual excommunication of the Rome and Constantinople! Issues were related to the doctrine of “Trinity” and “Papacy”! Latin and Greek used for liturgy also marked the differences.

c. There were Eastern Communities who wanted to remain in “communion” with the Western Churches! So gradually one by one established communion with the Western Churches: Ukrainian Catholic Church (1595), Ruthenian Catholic Church (1646), Syrian Catholic Church (1656), Melkite Catholic Church (1724), Armenian Catholic Church (1742), Chaldean Catholic Church (1834), Coptic Catholic Church (1899), etc. Some like the Maronite Catholic Church of Lebanon always maintained communion with the Western Churches.

d. Decree on Eastern Catholic Churches (of Vatican II) re-affirmed the equality of the East and West and accepted the Greek rite along with the Latin rite insisting only “celibacy” for Latin rite!

e. The point here the Catholicism is much broader than the Roman Catholicism and includes the Eastern Catholic Churches and their traditions!

Historical Origin & Development:

a. Established by Jesus Christ – “You are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church” (Matthew 16:18). With this come the “great commission (Matthew 28:18-20)” and “great commandment (Matthew 25:31-46)” and all other “baggage”! The Catholic Church grows in “number” and in “character”.

b. Apostles – Peter, Andrew, James (Son of Zebedee), John, Philip, Bartholomew, Thomas, Matthew, James (Son of Alphaeus), Thaddaeus, Simon, and Judas (Matthew 10:2-4).

c. The Fathers of the Church – Ignatius of Antioch (30-107), Clement of Rome (30-100), Justin Martyr (100-165), Irenaeus (120-202), Clement of Alexandria (150-215), Origen (185-254), Tertullian (155-220), Cyprian (200-258), etc.

d. Ecumenical Councils – 22 in number! See the previous notes for the list.

e. Later Fathers who fought “heresies” such as Arianism, Nestorianism, Monophysitism, etc.: Ambrose of Milan (339-397), Athanasius (293-373), Augustine of Hippo (354-430), Basil of Caesarea (330-379), Cyril of Alexandria (375-444), John Chrysostom (344-407).

f. There were also many movements such as the “Monastic Movement” connected with the name Anthony (251-356) and religious orders and societies such as that of “Franciscans” connected with the name Francis of Assisi (1181-1226) and “Dominicans” connected with Dominic (1170-1221) that shaped the “Catholic Church”. (See below for a list of “Religious Orders”). Counter reformation movement, or Catholic Reformation with the Ecumenical Council at Trent in 1545-1563.

g. Two major “happenings” that brought much damage to the Catholic Church are:

i. The Crusades a series attempts from the 11th to 15th centuries under the direction of he popes to free Jerusalem from the Turks. First initiated by Pope Urban II (1088-1099) in 1095. In 1099 Jerusalem was captured and Muslim population was massacred. In the process many Greeks were also killed and their wealth plundered that affected very much Catholic relationship with Muslims and the Eastern Orthodox Churches.

ii. Inquisitions were also initiated and instituted by popes.

1. Pope Gregory IX (1227-1241) established what is known as the Medieval Inquisition in 1229 to hunt down the Albigensian heretics who spoke of two principles good and evil in the creation of the world. They were simple folks who did not believe in the OT and infant baptism.
2. The Spanish Inquisition, more of a civil one, initiated by Ferdinand (1452-1516) and Isabella (1479-1504) in Spain.

h. Vatican II Council has been one of the main milestone of the Catholic Church in the more recent time that transformed – reformed the Catholic Church! These reforms are communicated through the 16 documents of the council. (See document on “Vatican II Documents”). Some of the more visible reforms include “greater lay participation”, “the greater reading of the Christian Scriptures”, “greater co-operation with the non-Catholic Churches”, “the celebration of the Mass in the vernacular”, and so on! There are those Catholics who are opposed to the “developments that took place in the Second Vatican Council”. If you are interested in this trend you may want to read Rama P. Coomaraswamy, The Destruction of the Christian Tradition: Updated and Revised, Bloomington, Indiana: World Wisdom, 2006.

Beliefs:

1. Great Commandment – “Love” – was always “foremost” for the Catholics. Concern for the poor, powerless, marginal people and a service for them continued throughout in the Church. Some examples from the past and present history of the Church are:

a. St Ambrose (339-397): He taught when the rich give alms they are only returning the property they have stolen from the poor.

b. St John Chrysostam (349-407): People noted that he was constantly attacking the rich.

c. St Augustine (354-430): He taught that greed is a form of idolatry.

d. St Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153): He taught that the rich could go to heaven only by making friends with the poor.

e. St Francis of Assisi (1181-1226): He was committed to radical poverty and encouraged “communal ownership”.
f. Pope John Paul II: “The needs of the poor have priority over the wants of the rich; the rights of the workers are more important than the maximization of profits; the participation of marginalized groups has precedence over the system that excludes them”.

g. Blessed Teresa as Mother Teresa of Calcutta dedicated her whole life for that.

h. Liberation theologies from South America have taught that the Church ought to be the Church of the poor for the poor! God is the God who takes the side of the poor! “Option for the poor” has become basic! You may read: Gregory Baum, Compassion and Solidarity: The Church for Others, Concord, On. : Anansi, 1992 (First Published in 1987).

2. Great commission - Matthew 28:18-20: “… Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit …”. Catholics, like the Protestants use the word “Evangelization”, announcing the Good News of Jesus Christ, to describe this concern and task of the Church! Others have seen this as “proselytization”, persuading others to change their religious faith! Asian Catholics have contributed towards the transformation of this concept “Evangelization” by introducing the concept of “dialogue”! Look at Nostra Aetate here! Note the contribution of Unknown Christ of Hinduism of R. Panikkar who says, “… the Lord, who has manifested in Christ, is present, effective, though hidden and unknown, in the religions of the world.”

3. For other beliefs see the Creeds we discussed earlier in the class! You may want to read about the doctrines of Trinity, Sin that introduces the concept of “purgatory” absent in the other branches of Christianity!

Organizational Structure:

a. The hierarchy of Catholic Church, always men, has three levels:

1. Pope – the Bishop of Rome, and the spiritual leader of the worldwide church. Pope appoints Bishops. Pope is also the ruler of the Vatican City an independent State. Catholics believe in the “infallibility” of the pope!

2. Bishops – Responsible for a diocese, or a territorial district. Bishop appoints Pastors.

3. Pastors/Priests – Spiritual leaders of the individual parishes.

b. There are two bodies to assist the Pope in governing the Catholic Church:

1. College of Cardinals. Cardinals are clergy appointed by the Pope to serve as advisers and they will eventually elect a pope as well.

2. Roman Curia. Administrative arm of the Pope.

Ritual and Ceremonies:

a. Sacraments – A “visible” sign of an “invisible grace”, a seal that seals the relationship between God and the community. They are seven in number – Baptism, Confirmation, Mass (Holy Communion), Reconciliation, Matrimony, Holy Orders, Anointing of the Sick!

b. Catholics do have “Novena”, a devotion consisting of prayer services held on 9 consecutive days or weeks honoring Mary, the Mother of Jesus or other saints.

c. Festivals – Catholics have a liturgical calendar with seasons beginning from Advent, Epiphany, Lenten, and Pentecostal seasons.

Major festivals are that which are connected with events in the life of Jesus Christ. Hence Christmas and Easter are very important festivals. Lent is the season that includes 40-week days prior to Easter. Palm Sunday commemorates the triumphal entry of Jesus into Jerusalem. Holy Thursday celebrates the gift of the sacrament of the Holy Eucharist. Good Friday commemorates the death of Jesus. Easter Sunday celebrates the resurrection of Jesus. Ascension Day celebrates the ascending of Christ to heaven. Pentecost commemorates the descent of the Holy Spirit on the disciples of Jesus.

Assumption of Mary – May 15 – celebrates the day God assumed the body of Mary into heaven. Immaculate Conception – December 8 – celebrates the sinlessness of Mary.

In addition many “saint days” are also celebrated among the Catholics for Catholics place a great value on the honoring of saints who lived “holy lives” and have been recognized by the “Catholic Church”! Saints are considered “examples” to imitate and at another level the saints are also “intercessors”.

Religious Orders & Communities

Benedictines St Benedict (480-547)
Dominicans St Dominic (1170-1221)
Franciscans St Francis (1181-1220)
Jesuits St Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556)
Sisters of Charity St Vicent de Paul (1581-1660)
Sisters of Charity St Louise de Marillac (1591-1630)
Trappists Abbot de Rance (1626-1700)
Salesians St John Bosco (1815-1888)
Missionaries of Charity Blessed Teresa (1910-1997)

Questions to Explore:

1. Explain the issues that led to the split between the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.

2. Alfred Loisy (1857-1940), a controversial Catholic, is quoted as saying, “Jesus preached the Kingdom of God, but we wound up with the Church”. What do you think he meant by this, and how might this saying apply today.

3. What kind of changes do you foresee in the Catholic Church if she were to take seriously what R. Panikkar had said: “… the Lord, who has manifested in Christ, is present, effective, though hidden and unknown, in the religions of the world.”

Ecumenical Councils

1. Jerusalem 49 Circumcision
2. Nicaea I 325 Arianism
3. Constantinople I 381 Apollinarianism
4. Epesesus 431 Nestorianism
5. Chalcedon 451 Eutychianism
6. Constantinople II 553 Three Chapters
7. Constantinople III 680 1 Monothelitism
8. Nicaea II 787 Iconoclasam


9. Constantinople IV 869-70 Photian Schism
10.Lateran I 1123 Investiture Controversy
11.Lateran II 1139 Arnold of Brescia, & c.
12.Lateran III 1179 Papal elections, & c.
13.Lateran IV 1215 Waldenses, & c.
14.Lyons I 1245 Frederick II
15.Lyons II 1274 Reunion, & c.
16.Vienne 1311 Templars
17.Constance 1414-18 Schism about 1417!
18.Ferrara – Florence 1438-9 Union with the Greeks
19.Lateran V 1512-17 Reform
20.Trent 1545-63 Protestantism/Reform
21.Vatican I 1869-70 Papal Infallibility, & c.
22.Vatican II 1962-65 Updating the Church


F.L. Cross, Editor, The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church.

Question to Explore:

What is an ecumenical council of the Christian community? Discuss either the first or the last ecumenical council and highlight the main reason for the coming together of the Christian leaders.

The Early Church

Please read LR, pages 314 to 317.

Proclamation and persecution were the chief characteristics of the “early Church” – the first Christian community. To proclaim the “Gospel of Jesus Christ” the early disciples went from place to place where they were persecuted while some embraced their message. Some of these proclamations and persecutions are described in the Acts of the Apostles – the fifth book in the Greek Bible. We can also learn about the “early church” through the letters in the New Testament.

Jesus’ disciple who took the message of Jesus into all parts of the world is known as an Apostle, a person sent with a mission, a missionary. Acts of the Apostles outlines three missionary journeys of Paul who was converted to Christian faith – in a miraculous way – when he was on his way to arrest to imprison Christians who were proclaiming Jesus Christ. You can read about Paul’s conversion in Acts of the Apostles 9:1-22. Paul at this stage is known as Saul.

Pentecost was the beginning of the Church. That was a moment when the Apostles had an extra-ordinary experience that transformed a small group of frightened men and women into a powerful band of preachers!

Early stages the followers of Jesus who were Jews used the Jewish places of worship – the temple and the synagogues – to proclaim their message. But soon they were ousted from these places. At one time they had to find secret places for Christian gathering – places known as catacombs.

At this stage the community of Christians grew very fast and were persecuted first by the fellow Jews and later by the Roman rulers until the Roman Emperor Constantine himself became a Christian around 380 CE.

The early Christians belonged to two groups who had an “uneasy coexistence”:

1. Jews who became Christians – Jewish Christians.
2. Non-Jews who became Christians – Gentile Christians.

Jewish Christians, in the early stages, insisted on those who became Christians should be circumcised while the Gentile Christians believed that circumcision was not necessary. The Jewish Christians who promoted circumcision were known as Judaisers. Paul wrote many of his letters opposing these Judaisers. A good example for this is the Letter to the Galatians. For Paul real “circumcision” is the circumcision of the heart (Romans 2:29).

Within the early church there was the conflict between the two groups that the Apostles try to solve by calling the first Ecumenical Council around 49 CE about which you will read in Acts of the Apostles, chapter 15. But the disciples were also divided among themselves.

Questions to Explore:

1. Why were the Christians persecuted up until Christianity became an Imperial Religion? Explain you answer in detail by also discussing the source, or sources, of persecutions and how the Christians faced these persecutions.

2. Describe and discuss critically Paul’s conversion outlined in Acts of the Apostles.

Christian Creeds and Doctrines

Doctrine, literally meaning “teaching”, “is a formal and an authoritative statement which articulate a religion’s belief”.

Creed, literally meaning “to believe”, is a “verbal statement of the faith” of a religious individual or a religious community. Creedal statements, within a religious community, functions somewhat like a fence!

To describe and clarify creeds and doctrines Christians use two more words: Orthodoxy (true and correct teaching) and Heterodoxy, usually Heresy (erroneous teaching)! Gnosticism was considered a heresy by the church in the second century.

Please read, “Evolving organization and theology” in LR, pages 317-320 and take note of the words and concepts such as “Theology”, “Gnosticism”, “Holy Trinity”, and “Christology”. It is important to become familiar with names of Christian theologians mentioned by Fisher.

You may also read “Central beliefs in contemporary Christianity” in LR, pages 345-347.

To get a flavour of what a Christian doctrine would look like you may want to visit the following website maintained by a conservative Christian group: Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry: www.carm.org

Creeds:

There are several creeds and confessions float in the various parts of the Church, some considered “official” and others used to emphasise certain aspects of the churches’ teaching. More common ones are:

1. The Apostles Creed http://www.creeds.net/ancient/apostles.htm
2. The Nicene Creed – See this below
3. Athanasius Creed http://www.holybible.com/resources/athanasius_creed.htm

The Nicene Creed

"We believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all that is, seen and unseen.

We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only Son of God, eternally begotten of the Father, God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten, not made, of one Being with the Father. Through him all things were made. For us and for our salvation he came down from heaven: by the power of the Holy Spirit he became incarnate from the Virgin Mary, and was made man. For our sake he was crucified under Pontius Pilate; he suffered death and was buried. On the third day he rose again in accordance with the Scriptures; he ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead, and his kingdom will have no end.

We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father and the Son. With the Father and the Son he is worshiped and glorified. He has spoken through the Prophets.

We believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church. We acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins. We look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen."

Constantine, the Emperor who was converted to Christian faith, convened a council in Nicaea in 325 CE. At this council a creed was written and signed by a majority of the bishops. Due to disagreement with regard to the version of the creed yet another council was summoned in 381 CE in Constantinople. It adopted a revised and expanded version of the 325 CE, now known as the Nicene Creed. The Nicene Creed is the most ecumenical of creeds.

Most churches affirm this. Nevertheless, in contrast to Eastern Orthodox churches, the Western churches state that the Holy Spirit proceeds not only from the Father but also the Son. To the Eastern churches, saying that the Holy Spirit proceeds from both Father and Son threatens the distinctiveness of the person of the Holy Spirit; to the Western churches, the “Son” there guards the unity of the triune God.

A much more simple form is used in certain Christian communities that comes directly from Jesus – Jewish Shema: “Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is one. Love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your mind, and with all your strength. This is the first and the great commandment. The second is like it: Love your neighbour as yourself. There is no commandment greater than these”.

Likewise, the “Ten Commandments” (Exodus 20) below also may indicate what Christians consider as an important part of their belief:
a. 'You shall have no other gods before Me.'
b. 'You shall not make for yourself a carved image--any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth.'
c. 'You shall not take the name of the LORD your God in vain.'
d. 'Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy.'
e. 'Honour your father and your mother.'
f. 'You shall not murder.'
g. 'You shall not commit adultery.'
h. 'You shall not steal.'
i. 'You shall not bear false witness against your neighbour.'
j. 'You shall not covet your neighbour's house; you shall not covet your neighbour's wife, nor his male servant, nor his female servant, nor his ox, nor his donkey, nor anything that is your neighbour's.'

Prayers:

Content of the prayers too can be an index to what one believes as it is in the Lord’s Prayer of the Christians:

“Our Father in heaven, hallowed be your name. Your kingdom come. Your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our debts, as we also have forgiven our debtors. And do not bring us to the time of trial, but rescue us from the evil one.” (Matthew 6: 9-13)

Another prayer popular among the Western Christians is the following attributed to St Francis of Assisi (1182-1228):

Lord, make me an instrument of your peace, where there is hatred, let me sow love;where there is injury, pardon;where there is doubt, faith;where there is despair, hope;where there is darkness, light;where there is sadness, joy;
O Divine Master, grant that I may not so much seek to be consoled as to console; to be understood as to understand; to be loved as to love.
For it is in giving that we receive; it is in pardoning that we are pardoned; and it is in dying that we are born to eternal life.

Note:

You may note that Jesus spoke primarily through “parables” to teach and educate the masses on “spirituality” but the Church after him used “creeds and doctrines” to promote “Christian education”. Constantine strived to maintain “unity” through the creed. Did he achieve his goal?

Questions to Explore:

1. Compare and contrast the “Faith Statement” of the Canadian Shouters Baptist community (found in

http://www.shouterbaptist.org/pages/faith.html) with the Nicene Creed.

2. List the main beliefs of the Christians and explain in detail three of those beliefs.

The Bible: Sacred Scriptures of Christians

Marcus Borg, a contemporary spokesperson for Christians, considers “the Bible” as the “heart of Christian tradition”. For him Christian religion is “centered in the Bible”.

He is aware that there are Christians who consider the Bible to be “infallible”, emphasising the “historical factuality” and the moral and doctrinal teaching of the Bible are “absolute”.

But he rejects such emphasis along with “millions of people”. For Borg Bible is “a human response” to God; it is a “human product”. It should never be taken “literally” but “metaphorically”.

Jesus used the Tanekh, the Hebrew Scriptures (Possibly the 39 Books). There were other books too that were considered as “sacred”, at least in certain circles.

Christian Bible:

The early Christians, accepted the Bible of Jesus as theirs and “simply carried” these books into their community. To this they also added their own writings. Books they brought in from the Jewish community of Jesus, the Tanekh, they called it Old Testament (which we today call Hebrew Scriptures) after they gave a sacred status to their own books that they called New Testament (or Greek Scriptures).

Here are the books in the Hebrew Scriptures that you will find in the Non-Catholic Churches:

Genesis
Exodus
Leviticus
Numbers
Deuteronomy
Joshua
Judges
Ruth
1 Samuel
2 Samuel
1 Kings
2 Kings
1 Chronicles
2 Chronicles
Ezra
Nehemiah
Esther
Job
Psalms
Proverbs
Ecclesiastes
Song of Solomon
Isaiah
Jeremiah
Lamentations
Ezekiel
Daniel
Hosea
Joel
Amos
Obadiah
Jonah
Micah
Nahum
Habakkuk
Zephaniah
Haggai
Zechariah
Malachi

There were other Books that were rejected by these Churches that called them Apocrypha. They were, according to these Christians, books outside the Canon. Catholics included some of these books into their Hebrew Bible - making the number 46 - calling them Deuterocanonical Books:

Tobit
Judith
Additions to the Book of Esther
Wisdom of Solomon
Ecclesiasticus, or the Wisdom of Jesus Son of Sirach
Baruch
The Letter of Jeremiah
The Prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Jews
Susanna
Bel and the Dragon
1 Maccabees
2 Maccabees
1 Esdras
Prayer of Manasseh
Psalm 151
3 Maccabees
2 Esdras
4 Maccabees

Books in Christian Scriptures (70 CE to 110 CE):

Matthew
Mark
Luke
John
Acts of the Apostles
Romans
1 Corinthians
2 Corinthians
Galatians
Ephesians
Philippians
Colossians
1 Thessalonians
2 Thessalonians
1 Timothy
2 Timothy
Titus
Philemon
Hebrews
James
1 Peter
2 Peter
1 John
2 John
3 John
Jude
Revelation

There were other books that were left out of this collection that had 27 books.

Interpreting the Bible:

Christians also differed from one another in the way they interpreted the Bible that led to so many divisions and denominations. The science of interpretation of the Bible is known as hermeneutics. Today there are two broad spectrums of interpretations:

a. Literal interpretations.
b. Metaphorical interpretations.

Please read:

a. LR, pp. 295-298.
b. Matthew chapters 5 to 7 (in the Bible).

Questions to Explore:

1. List and discuss briefly the main teachings of Jesus outlined in the Sermon on the Mount in Matthew 5-7. Is there a word, or a single phrase, that you may choose to summarise Jesus’ teachings? Explain the reasons for your choice.

2. Write brief notes on the following: Hebrew Bible; Greek Bible; Infallibility of the Bible; Hermeneutics; Synoptic Gospels; and Apocrypha.

Christian Thoughts on and Titles for Jesus

Marcus J. Borg (in his Jesus, 2006, pp. 5-14), identifies four dominant ways of talking about Jesus in North America:

a. The dying saviour – “Jesus died for our sins”.
b. Jesus as the Divine Human – Jesus is “God in human form”. The technical word is “incarnation”.
c. The Apocalyptic Jesus – The end of the world is near and “Jesus will come soon”.
d. Jesus as Teacher – Jesus provided guidance for the moral life.

While d above is the prominent image of Christians who are theologically liberal and those others, theologically conservatives emphasise a, b, and c. The liberal Christians view Jesus in the same way they see the other prophets mentioned in the Hebrew scriptures, such as Moses, Jeremiah, Amos and so on.


There are other “images” of Jesus emphasised elsewhere. For example:

a. Jesus as the “liberator” among those Christians inclined toward “Liberation Theology”.
b. Jesus as a “satyagrahi”, not violent protestor, an image dominant in Mahatma Gandhi’s thoughts, later picked up many Indian Christians and Martin Luther King, Jr.
c. Jesus as a “mystic” – one who was filled with “God Consciousness. A good non-Christian (?) book on this is Deepak Chopra’s The Third Jesus: The Christ We Cannot Ignore, New York: Harmony Books, 2008.


The traditional titles Christians give for Jesus also will provide us some clue to discover the Christian image of Jesus. Some of them are:

a. The Saviour.
b. The Christ or the Messiah.
c. The Word – Logos.
d. The Son of God.
e. The Son of Man.
f. Lord.
g. God.


You may note:

a. Thomas, a disciple of Jesus called Jesus: “My Lord, my God” (John 20:28).
b. Peter, the chief of the disciples of Jesus, called him: “… the Messiah, the Son of the living God” (Matthew 16:17).
c. Paul, one of the chief spokes person for the early church, about Jesus said: “He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of all creation; for in him all things in heaven and on earth were created …” (Colossians 1:15ff).

Question to explore:

List five traditional titles of Jesus prevalent among Christians and explain in detail the content the Christians provide for two of them.

Review for Mid Term Examination

Below you find a sample examination to enable students to review work for the mid term examination:

Office of Interdisciplinary Studies

Introduction to the Religions of the World
Religion 101 – C2 (2008-2009)
Mid Term Examination (SAMPLE ONLY)
October 15, 2008 Time: 2.00-2.50 PM

Part I Answer all

1. Those who claim they worship the only true deity are known as ____________________.

2. _______________ are persons who say they have no adequate evidence to believe in God.

3. According to Ninian Smart religion is a seven-dimensional organism. And the seven dimensions are: ritual, _______________, mythical or narrative, experimental or emotional, ethical or legal, organisational or social, materiel or artistic.

4. The author of the religious classic titled The Idea of Holy is _______________.

5. P.D. Devanandan, an Indian scholar of Hinduism, used to say every religion has three basic parts known as culture, cultus, and ______________.

6. “Religion is what the individual does with his solitariness”. Who said this? ________________________.

7. Torah consists of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and ________________.

8. Two small square boxes that contain Shema and other paragraphs of the Torah is known as ________________.

9. _______________ is a pointer that Jews use in the synagogue when reading from their Sacred Scriptures.

10. Orthodox, Reform, Conservative, and ____________________ are the four Jewish movements found today in North America.

Part II Answer any one only

1. Discuss the different types of responses to religion, or religions, you are likely to encounter in the community you live.

2. Discuss how the Jewish community balances her growth with her rooted ness in the “revelations” given to the ancient sages by discussing the concept of the sacred writings in the Jewish community.

3. Discuss the major Christian concerns of the following persons: David Vandiver, Blessed Teresa, and Desmond M. Tutu.

The Life and Teachings of Jesus

Please read LR, pp. 298 – 313.

Birth and Childhood of Jesus:

Constructing a single chronology of Jesus’ life from the Gospels is impossible!

Birth – 4 BCE – Bethlehem or Nazareth – Born to a “virgin” – Two “genealogy”: Matthew’s (Matthew 1:1-18) and Luke’s (Luke 3:23-38)! You may want to explore why the two genealogies are very different.

Childhood – We read about Jesus at the age of 12 – What about before 12 and in between 12-30?

Ministry – Life and Work of Jesus:

What kind of ministry did Jesus perform? Peter, the chief of Jesus’ disciples, summarising the ministry of Jesus, said: “[Jesus] went about doing good and healing all who were oppressed by the devil, for God was with him” (Acts 10:38).

Is the Nazareth Manifesto of Jesus (Luke 4:16-20), below, subtly political?

“When he came to Nazareth, where he had been brought up, he went to the synagogue on the sabbath day, as was his custom. He stood up to read, and the scroll of the prophet Isaiah was given to him. He unrolled the scroll and found the place where it was written: ‘The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed me to bring good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to the captives and recovery of sight to the blind, to let the oppressed go free, to proclaim the year of the Lord’s favour.’ And he rolled up the scroll, gave it back to the attendant, and sat down."

Was Jesus a miracle worker? How do you look at his miracles, literally or metaphorically? Conservative Christians often take it literally, while the more liberal Christians may view the miracle metaphorically.

Matthew 14:13-21:

“Now when Jesus heard this, he withdrew from there in a boat to a deserted place by himself. But when the crowds heard it, they followed him on foot from the towns. When he went ashore, he saw a great crowd; and he had compassion for them and cured their sick. When it was evening, the disciples came to him and said, ‘This is a deserted place, and the hour is now late; send the crowds away so that they may go into the villages and buy food for themselves.’ Jesus said to them, ‘They need not go away; you give them something to eat.’ They replied, ‘We have nothing here but five loaves and two fish.’ And he said, ‘Bring them here to me.’ Then he ordered the crowds to sit down on the grass. Taking the five loaves and the two fish, he looked up to heaven, and blessed and broke the loaves, and gave them to the disciples, and the disciples gave them to the crowds. And all ate and were filled; and they took up what was left over of the broken pieces, twelve baskets full. And those who ate were about five thousand men, besides women and children.”

Feeding of the 5000: Is this a miracle of multiplication of the bread or miracle of sharing!

To Think: If you were a conservative/liberal Christian, how will you understand the Matthew 17:24-27:

“ When they reached Capernaum, the collectors of the temple tax came to Peter and said, ‘Does your teacher not pay the temple tax?’ He said, ‘Yes, he does.’ And when he came home, Jesus spoke of it first, asking, ‘What do you think, Simon? From whom do kings of the earth take toll or tribute? From their children or from others?’ When Peter said, ‘From others’, Jesus said to him, ‘Then the children are free. However, so that we do not give offence to them, go to the lake and cast a hook; take the first fish that comes up; and when you open its mouth, you will find a coin; take that and give it to them for you and me.’”

Jesus’ preaching had a “radical message” –

a. Touching lepers and his time with women!

b. Parables (Stories) – Make it clear or to conceal! Almost one third of Jesus’ teachings are through parables. There are about 60 parables attributed to Jesus. Parable of the Good Samaritan is found in LR, p. 305. Parables on “Lost and Found” are found in Luke 15.

c. Beatitudes (see below)

Beatitudes – Matthew 5:1-13 – Somewhat the Aspirations of Jesus!

"When Jesus saw the crowds, he went up the mountain; and after he sat down, his disciples came to him. Then he began to speak, and taught them, saying:
‘Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
‘Blessed are those who mourn, for they will be comforted.
‘Blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the earth.
‘Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they will be filled.
‘Blessed are the merciful, for they will receive mercy.
‘Blessed are the pure in heart, for they will see God.
‘Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called children of God.
‘Blessed are those who are persecuted for righteousness’ sake, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
‘Blessed are you when people revile you and persecute you and utter all kinds of evil against you falsely on my account. 12Rejoice and be glad, for your reward is great in heaven, for in the same way they persecuted the prophets who were before you.
‘You are the salt of the earth; but if salt has lost its taste, how can its saltiness be restored? It is no longer good for anything, but is thrown out and trampled under foot."

Jesus’ life style compared to the Zealots, Sadducees, Pharisees, Scribes, and Essenes – religious contemporaries of Jesus – was very different. [To know more about these groups refer to notes on “Jewish Movements” under Judaism.]

Death, Resurrection, and Ascension:

Jesus alienated his religious contemporaries through his lifestyle and teaching – both in its content and the way he presented his message. Jesus' contempraries, perhaps, were envious of his success that came through his fresh and forthright teaching. To know more about this you may want to read the books (known as “Gospels”) attributed to Matthew, Mark, or Luke. This led to his ccrucifixion, death on the cross.

His followers, however, announced Jesus’ resurrection and the subsequent ascension.

Jesus’ Return:

Christians believe that Jesus will return to earth. There is a wide variety of opinion about this among the different shades of Christians and church communities.

Some Sources:

Here are some books that you may consult to explore more on “Jesus”, our topic for today:

a. Borg, Marcus J., Jesus: Uncovering the Life, Teachings, and Relevance of a Religious Revolutionary, HarperSanFrancisco, 2006.

b. Borg, Marcus J., and John Dominic Crossan, The Last Week: A Day-by-Day Account of Jesus’s Final Week in Jerusalem, HarperSanFrancisco, 2006.

c. Mayotte, Ricky Alan, The Complete Jesus, South Royalton, Vermont: Steerforth Press, 1998. (This book does not discuss Jesus but quotes Jesus’ words – arranging them under 9 themes – from 5 sources from the New Testament, 11 sources from Gnostic Texts, and 8 sources from Apocrypha).

d. Borg, Marcus J., The Heart of Christianity – Rediscovering a Life of Faith: How We Can Be Passionate Believers Today, HarperSanFrancisco, 2003. (Chapter 5 of this book has a discussion on Jesus. The book is a good introduction to a “non-conservative” Christian religion).

Questions to Explore:

1. What is known about the historical life of Jesus? How is this similar to and different from the Jesus that one encounters in the Christian Scriptures, especially the four gospels?

2. Critically comment on the mind of Jesus revealed in the beatitudes and its relevance to the modern world.

Christianity: An Overview

Basis for Christian Religion:

Mary Pat Fisher says, “Christianity is a faith based on the life, teachings, death, and resurrection of Jesus.” (LR, p. 295. Emphasis is mine.)

Variety in Christian Religion:

Christian faith, with conflicts and consensus, is lived under over 21000 different denominations that could be put into three broad spectrums of churches – Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant that emerged from a Church divided into Eastern and Western Churches! (Consult World Christian Encyclopaedia, edited by David B. Barrett, 1982.) It is useful to look at the timeline for Christian Religion provided by Fisher in LR page 307.

Major Branches of Christian Religions:

There were two main branches:
A. Western Christianity – Centered in Rome
(i) Roman Catholicism
(ii) Protestantism
B. Eastern Christianity – Centered in Constantinople

For diagrams discussed in the class consult the following:
a. LR, p.336.
b. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:ChristianityBranches.svg
c. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Other_Christians

Number of Adherents:

Catholics 968, 000, 000
Protestants 395, 867, 000
Other Christians 275, 583, 000
Orthodox 217, 948, 000
Anglicans 70, 530, 000
Source: http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html

Sources to Study Christian Religion:

a. LR, pages 295-375. This is a required reading.
b. Cory, Catherine A., and David T. Landry, editors, The Christian Theological Tradition, Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2003. This book summarizes well the subjects that we would explore in the next nine lectures on Christianity.
c. Keen, Ralph, The Christian Tradition, Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2004.

To explore the “Christian Faith that subsists in church communities” mentioned above you may want to explore volumes of:

a. Commentaries on the Scriptures. (Into this you may include sermons as well!)
b. Histories of different Churches. (Into this you may include biographies!)
c. Theological treaties’ on various themes and doctrines!
d. Liturgies, creeds and catechisms!
e. Art and artifacts of these communities!

Looking at individuals from different church communities may also give insight to our subject matter. Students are expected to explore the following persons discussed in LR and be able to write short accounts on these persons and their faith inclinations.
a. David Vandiver – LR, p. 304.
b. Theodosius and Sergius, two who are considered “saints”, and discussed under the title “Russian Orthodox Kenoticism” – LR, p. 324.
c. Blessed Teresa’s Missionaries of Charity – LR, p. 348.
d. Archbishop Desmond M. Tutu – LR, p. 368.

Questions to Explore:

1. Discuss the major Christian concerns of the following persons: David Vandiver, Blessed Teresa, and Desmond M. Tutu.

2. Explain the term “kenoticism” from the exemplary lives of the Russian saints Theodosius and Sergius and discuss its relevance in the context of the North American plenitude.

Jewish Festivals

Festivals, in any religious tradition perform, certain functions including the following:
a. Creates a sense of community.
b. Inject joy in the hearts of the adherents.
c. Becomes a subtle tool to communicate themes and to educate the masses.
d. Becomes a tool to proclaim the message to the outsiders.

For each festival the following information are provided:

1. Name of the festival!
2. Time to celebrate the festival!
3. Commemorates – What?
4. Day of Rest – Yes/No
5. Celebration – How?
6. Decreed by whom?

I. Passover (Pesach)

7- 8 days in March/April

The Israelites escape from slavery in Egypt

First and last days

No food containing leaven are eaten – Matzoh eaten
Passover supper – seder – on the 1st or 2nd evening with story telling

Torah

II. Holocaust Remembrance Day (Yom Ha’Shoah)

1 day in April

Murder of 6 million Jews by the Nazi regime

No

Jews gather to remember and mourn & strengthen themselves not to permit such; readings from Holocaust literature with specially composed prayers, songs from Holocaust period are said and sung

Day of memorial decreed by Israeli Parliament


III. Israel Independence Day (Yom Ha’Atzmaut)

1 day in April/May

The creation of the State of Israel

No, but a public holiday in Israel

Public parades and parties in Israel parties elsewhere in Jewish community and singing of national anthem

Decreed by Israeli Parliament

IV. Festival of Weeks (Shavuot)

1-2 in June

The giving of the Torah to Moses in Mount Sinai

Yes

Some Jews study the whole night. Eating dairy food, decorating homes and the synagogue. Reading from the Torah including the 10 commandments.

Prescribed by the Torah.

V. Ninth of Av (Tisha B’Av)

1 day in August

The destruction of the Temple in 586 BCE and the Second Temple and other Jewish tragedies!

No

Reading of the Book of Lamentation. Fasting completely for a day, including not wearing leather.

Decreed by Jewish Leaders.

VI. New Year (Rosh Hasanah)

1-2 days in September.

Newness. A day of blowing the shofar (ram’s horn).

Yes.

Blowing the shofar for spiritual awakening. Synagogue clothes in white. Eating apples and honey, honey cakes and new fruits. Sending new year cards. Asking forgiveness for past year wrongdoings.

Prescribed by Torah.

VII. Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur)

1 day in September/October.

Repentence. Before the destruction of the Temple the High Priest made atonement for people on this day!

Yes.

Fasting. Lighting candles at home. Congregating in the synagogue. Asking for forgiveness from God. Wearing white clothes. Blowing shofar at the end of the fast.

Torah.

VIII. Festival of Booths (Sukkot)

7-8 days in September/October.

Living in tents after escaping Egyptian slavery.

First day.

Families build sukkot and take their meals in them for a week.

Torah.

IX. Festival of Rededication (Hanukkah)

8 days in December.

Restoration of the Temple Worship by Maccabees after it had been spoiled by enemy idol-worshippers.

No.

Lighting candles each night for eight nights – one on first night, two on second night, … Eating foods cooked in oil. Playing special games.

Decreed by Jewish leaders.

X. Festival of Lots (Purim)

1 day in February/March.

Esther, Jewish Queen of Persia, risking her life to save her people from the king’s prime minister, Haman.

No.

Reading ogf the Book of Esther and trying to make noise to drown the name of Haman. Wearing costumens. Eating hamantashen – sweet triangular pastries filled with fruit.

Decreed by Jewish leaders.

Sources:

Further information can be obtained from many other sources including the following websites:

http://www.religionfacts.com/judaism/holidays.htm

http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/holidays.html

http://www3.telus.net/public/kstam/en/temple/details/calendar.htm

http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Facts+About+Israel/People/Jewish+Festivals+in+Israel.htm

Question to Explore:

List six important festivals of the Jewish community and describe in detail three of them. Your answer should provide evidence that you have consulted sources beyond your lecture notes.