Hindu Rituals

With a multitude of gods, and goddess, and a huge collection of sacred and semi sacred scriptures it is natural to expect a huge quantity of rituals that also vary from place to place and according to the changing times with some essentials remaining unchanged!

Please read on “Rituals” in Fisher, pp. 97-99 and “Home Puja” in p. 101.

Puja, Worship:

1. Puja, a daily ritual is performed in a sacred corner or in a “puja room”, or “god’s room” of the home.

2. Regular puja enables the Hindu to remain conscious of “the divine presence” and “devotee’s dharma”, responsibilities in the world!

3. Puja begins with a darshan, seeing the family deity! A small picture or a statue is fond in the sacred corner, in Canada it is usually a closet, or in the “puja room” of the home.

4. This is followed by worship where the worshiper offers the god flowers, fruits, and cooked food. This act brings the deity down to earth – a sense of intimacy is created between the deity and devotee!

5. And the next aspect of the worship is partaking in the prasadam, sacramental food, food offered too god!

6. Puja is generally performed only after a “bath” or “a purification of the body”! And women in their monthly cycles generally keep away from puja room! This may vary from place to place!

Holy Places – Temples:

1. Temples are place where the idols are installed and they have divinity infused into them through a long ritual process to introduce sanctity about them. Thereafter the temple becomes a place for collective worship.

2. Hindu then going to the temple with a clean body, legs and hands with no foot wear as a mark of respect. They may also adorn themselves with holy ash, taking an offering to the deity such as flowers, fruits, coconut, camphor and so on.

3. Singing and chanting god’s name either loudly or quietly in ones heart as long as it does not disturb the other devotee is appropriate.

4. Circumambulating – often three times – the gods and goddess in the temple and offering to the priest and temple up keep are all perfect acts of worship, which is expected to increase “a God consciousness” and “an awareness of one’s dharma”!

5. Professional priests, mainly Brahmin, perform rituals in the temple – every day, several times in a day in some places, every week, etc –! The main ritual here is the puja.

6. The priest bathes the deity adorning with clothing, garlands and flowers. Food and drink are offered to the deity and if taken out on procession for people to have a darshan, to see, and for the deity to bless, then, the deity is shaded with an umbrella. The last part of the puja is the arati, the waving of the lighted lamp, usually camphor flames on a tray! At this point the devotees lift their palms together and utter god’s name and seek grace. When the flames are brought to them by the priests they will cup their palms together and place above the flames and stroke their palms on themselves as symbolic gesture to appropriate the blessings of the deity. Then the priests bring prasadam, the gifts offered to the deity and the water used for washing of the deity (the idol). This water is received in the palms and poured on one’s self after sipping a small portion! Fruits and flowers received as prasadam, grace of the deity, are taken back to home for consumption as a symbol of blessings.

7. Once the puja is over in the temple singing or other cultural entertainment and socializing will follow! The Hindu worship is simple. And there may be opportunities to listen to religious discourses in the temple as well. Hindu temples in North America and Europe also end up as centre for preservation of the language and culture!

Priestly Class and Rituals:

1. Brahmin priests, or other appointed priests, perform other rituals and “temple puja”! This could involve “elaborate sacrifices to the god Agni”! You may see a picture of such a sacrifice in Fisher’s page 77.

2. Rites of passage rituals are the most common special occasion rituals performed by Hindus. A family member rather than a “Brahmin Priest” can do rituals connected with the “rites of passages”.

3. Mantras, or specified prayers, are recited at these rituals. For boys of the first three castes – Brahmin Caste, Kshtriya Caste, Vaisiya Caste – a second birth ceremony is performed. This is known as the thread ceremony.

4. Marriage (vivaha) is the middle age passage. The Hindu marriage is much more than an exchange of vows and rings. Before and during the nuptials, many rites are performed in the presence of family deities. These rites show the importance of a strong bond between a husband and wife. The actual wedding ceremony is performed by the priest and signifies the joining of the souls. The blessing by the priest completes the marriage ceremony and is called ashirwaad.

5. Another important ritual is connected with the funeral rites. In the Hindu tradition, individuals are generally cremated and special rites are done to ensure a good after life.

6. Other rituals include domestic rites, celebration of new and full moons, changing of the seasons, first fruits of the harvest, the building of a new house, birth of a son, and so on.

7. Rituals connected with village Hinduism, or folk Hinduism are very different and may even involve sacrifice of animals – goat and fowl – and strong drinks, particularly if those rituals are connected with exorcism, healing, and so on!

Pilgrimages and Festivals:

1. Pilgrimages and festivals are very important and they keep the Hindu community very vibrant. Please read Fisher, pp. 104-108 to explore, on your own, some of the important pilgrimage centres and the important festivals such as Holi festival.

2. Cultural and musical programmes connected with the Hindu festivals become an opportunity for the Hindu devotee to learn more of his or her own Hindu faith.

Questions to Explore:

1. Why do Hindus celebrate the “Holi Festival”? Explain. (Read Fisher, p. 107.)

2. Discuss the “Temple Worship” of the Hindus, or explain the various aspect of a Hindu puja at home.

Hindu Scriptures

You may be able to read all the Hindu Scriptures from the following site:
http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/index.htm

Religions we have studied so far – Judaism, Christianity, and Islam – have sacred writings that are “authoritative” for its adherents! Generally these writings are considered “revealed” and “sacred”.

Hindus also have a corpus of writings that they consider “sacred” and “authoritative”, which are also “revealed”. And an average Hindu may not have read any of these sacred writings, yet the Hindu will treat them with utmost respect.

A. Shurti

Hindus refer to the “revealed” character of these writings with the use of the term shruti, “that which was heard”! The ancient rishis, sages heard the “knowledge”; they saw the “eternal knowledge” that existed. The message, or the knowledge, in these writings is “trans-human”, not “authored” by any humans!

This is how Hindus speak of the Vedas, the primary Sacred Scriptures, which are four in number as we saw in the last lesson – Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda. Knowledge about the earliest form of Hindu religion is also derived from these four Vedas. And these four Vedas (from around 1500-600 BCE) contain the following four sections, (transmitted orally for centuries before they were committed to writing):

a. Samhitas – These are Vedic hymns praising the deity!
b. Brahmanas – They are Vedic instructions and rules to perform the sacred rituals in the right and appropriate way. They also provide meaning and purpose of these rituals.
c. Aranyakas – These are called “composition for the forests” or “Compostion of the forests”. These are actually additional explanatory materiel on Brahmanas, mainly written by ascetic sages who lived in forests.
d. Upanishads – Further philosophical comments to the Aranyakas that one learns by “sitting beside the teacher (Guru)”.

Here is a quote from Rig Veda 1:1 (Translated by Raimundo Panikkar:

“I magnify God, the Divine Fire,
the Priest, Minister of the sacrifice
the Offerer of oblation, supreme giver of treasure”

Commenting on this Panikkar says:

“This opening verse contains as in a nutshell he whole of Man’s sanātana dharma or primordial religiousness: praise, mediation, sacrifice, commerce with the divine, and also remuneration for Man, all caught up in an atmosphere of invocation”.
The Vedic Experience, 1983 edition of 1977, p. 37.

“The Gāyatrī” mantra, which every devout Hindu recites daily, is also from the Rig Veda that is translated thus:

“Om.
We meditate upon the glorious splendor
of the Vivifier divine.
May he himself illumine our minds!”

B. Smritis

There are more books that are considered as secondary scriptures in terms of authority. But these Sacred Scriptures probably are read more frequently and loved more dearly than the Vedas! These are known as Smritis as opposed to Srutis!

The Smritis are based on the teachings of the Vedas. They stand next in authority to the Sruti (Vedas). It explains and expands the Vedas to the adherents of the sanātana dharma. Some of this literature is known as Dharma Sastras that lay down the laws to regulate the Hindu national, community, family, and the individual’s obligations.

Sruti means what is heard, and Smriti means what is remembered. Sruti is revelation and Smriti is tradition. Upanishad is Sruti. Bhagavad-Gita, which we will discuss later is Smriti. But both Sruti and Smiriti are authoritative for Hindus.

The corpuses that make up the Smiriti are the following:

a. Puranas
b. Dharma Sastras
c. Ithihasas
d. Bhagavad-Gita

a. Puranas

Puranas, meaning old, were composed from around 300 BCE until a little after 1000 CE. They were “old tales” of the Hindu tradition, shifting the emphasis away from the Vedic gods! They are mixture of history and imaginative mythology. They tell stories of gods, sages, and kings of great repute, often describing a struggle between good and evil. There are many but 18 Puranas are very prominent among the Hindus – six about Vishnu, six about Brahma, and six about Siva. Puranas communicate values to the devotees.

For more detail read Fisher, p. 95f.

b. Dharma Sastras

They are 18 in number. The often-quoted one is the Manu’s known as Manu Dharma Sastra (also known as Manava Dharma Sastra). The lawgivers have somewhat codified the content and expectation of the Vedas considering the context in which they were living. And now they have become somewhat universal!

There are Hindus who are aware of the need to somewhat abandon at least the “letter” of the dharma sastras such as that of Manu and evolve a new dharma sastra for the present time! Swami Shivananda of the Divine Life Society, in Rishikesh, is one such person.

He says: “It is not possible to follow some of the laws of Manu at present time. We can follow their spirit and not the letter. Society is advancing. When it advances, it outgrows certain laws, which were valid and helpful at a particular stage of its growth. Many new things, which were not thought out by the old lawgivers have come into existence now. It is no use insisting people to follow now those old laws, which have become obsolete. … Time is ripe for a new Smriti.”
http://www.hinduism.co.za/vedas-.htm#The%20Smritis

Here in a 19th century English translation is a quote from Manu on “Re-birth” taken from his last chapter (chapter 12) verses 39 to 43:

“I will briefly declare in due order what transmigrations in this whole (world a man) obtains through each of these qualities. Those endowed with Goodness reach the state of gods, those endowed with Activity the state of men, and those endowed with Darkness ever sink to the condition of beasts; that is the threefold course of transmigrations. But know this threefold course of transmigrations that depends on the (three) qualities (to be again) threefold, low, middling, and high, according to the particular nature of the acts and of the knowledge (of each man). Immovable (beings), insects, both small and great, fishes, snakes, and tortoises, cattle and wild animals, are the lowest conditions to which (the quality of) Darkness leads. Elephants, horses, Sudras, and despicable barbarians, lions, tigers, and boars (are) the middling states, caused by (the quality of) Darkness.”

c. Ithihasas

Ithihasas, epics – Hindus refer sometimes to four epics. But the common ones are two: Ramayana and Maha Baharatha. Bhagavad-Gita, the most popular and the beloved scriptures of the Hindus, is somewhat an appendix to Maha Bharatha!

1. The Ramayana

Ramayana is the story of Sri Rama, an avatar of Vishnu. In Hindu religion Sri Rama is also the ideal man. Sita, the wife of Rama is depicted in this epic as the ideal woman. Please read the summary of this epic in Fisher, pages 92-94. Hanuman, the monkey god, is also connected with this epic about which you can read in the window in p. 93 of Fisher’s book. The epic conveys the Hindu ideals and values to the devotees who periodically turn to this epic. Valmiki, a sage wrote Ramayana in twenty-four thousand verses, which was later rendered into Tamil by the poet Kamban and is known as Kamba Ramayana.

2. The Mahabharata

Mahabharata is an epic that describes the Great War in a legendry place called Kurukshetra between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, cousins. Mahabharata also communicates the Hindu ideals and values. Hindus believe that this epic, sometimes known as fifth Veda discusses all the themes of religion, philosophy, mysticism and polity. This epic is connected with Lord Krishna, the avatar of Vishnu. Vyasa is the sage who wrote this epic with noble “moral teachings, useful lessons of all kinds, many beautiful stories and episodes, discourses, sermons, parables and dialogues”, which under girds Hindu faith and practices. Please read Fisher, p. 94f for more details.


d. The Bhagavad-Gita

It is a part of Mahabharata. The subject matter of this little book with 18 chapters is a dialogue between Lord Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu, and Arjuna in the battlefield, before the commencement of the Great War between the forces of evil and good.

Sri Krishna, as the Lord Krishna is known among Hindus, became the charioteer of Arjuna and explained the essentials of Hindu religion, the need to keep ones own dharma, to Arjuna.

Hindus believe the Upanishads contain the cream of the Vedas while the Bhagavad-Gita contains the cream of the Upanishads.

Hindus sometimes consider the Upanishads as the cow and the Lord Krishna as the cowherd while Arjuna becomes the calf. Then Bhagavad-Gita is the milk. The wise are those who go straight to drink the milk in the Bhagavad-Gita.

Mahatma Gandhi read and reflected on the Bhagavad-Gita daily! It is a piece of literature that leads to self-knowledge!

Questions to Explore:

1. Clarify the Hindu concepts of Sruti and Smiriti.

2. Discuss the Sacred Scriptures of the Hindu community.

3. Why do you think the two epics, Ramayana and Mahabharatha are so important for Hindus? As you answer this question give a summary of the two epics.

4. How will you explain your Muslim friend the Hindu fascination with their Puranas?

Hindu Deities

In our earlier lecture we noticed that one could be a good Hindu without having any belief in any god or goddess! We referred to “Samkhya”, an “atheistic philosophy” as part of the Hindu Philosophical system!

Nevertheless an average Hindu is a firm believer in God or in several gods and goddesses!

Hindu conception of God then we noted earlier moves from atheism to polytheism, to monotheism including a monism, which I described in the last class as “a singular substance behind the multiplicity in form”.

Polytheism

1. Hindus speak of 330 million gods, divinities known as devas!

2. Vedic religion – the most ancient form of Hinduism (1500-500 BCE) – is very polytheistic and some of the deities that we encounter in the Vedas – four in number: Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharva Veda – are:

a. Varuna – the Lord of order,

b. Mitra – the god of nights, together with Varuna they both maintain social and cosmic order,

c. Agni – the fire god,

d. Indra – warrior deity, connected with thunderstorm and is the leader of gods and in mythology Indra has killed the snake, the symbol of the snake,

e. And so on!

3. Most Vedic gods have no hold on the post-Vedic Hindus.

4. In the post-Vedic Hindu religion we still see polytheism with the mentioning of other gods and goddess including the following:

a. Brahma is the creator of the cosmos. The four castes (varunas) originate from Brahma – from the mouth (brahmins), the shoulders (kshtriyas), the thighs (vishias), and the feet (shudras).

b. Vishnu is the preserver and protector of the creation, the cosmos – You may see different avatars, (loosely translated as incarnations) of Vishnu at: http://www.sanatansociety.org/hindu_gods_and_goddesses/vishnu.htm

c. Siva (or Shiva) is the destroyer. He is the third in the Hindu Trinity consisting of Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. But for Saivites – one of the major denominations – generally consisting of Hindus living in the southern part of India – Siva is the Ultimate Reality!

d. Ganapati, or Ganesha, half elephant and half human god is the remover of obstacles. Hindus go to Ganesha before they begin any new project so that the project is completed without any hindrances. He has four hands, elephant's head and a big belly. His vehicle is a tiny mouse. In his hands he carries a rope (to carry devotees to the truth), an axe (to cut devotees' attachments), and a sweets to encourage and reward devotees for spiritual activity). His fourth hand's palm is always extended to bless people. His elephant head is the symbol of wisdom and strength. Mouse, his vehicle, represents swift movement and a sense of the presence of mind.

e. Kartikeya – warrior god. Popular god among the Tamils.

f. Hanuman – Monkey god!

g. Parvati – consort of Siva. Durga is also sometimes included as Siva’s consort along with Parvati.

h. Durga – please read Fisher, p. 86 and view picture on p. 87.

i. Kali – please read Fisher, p. 86.

j. Saraswati – goddess of knowledge and art. Saraswati puja’s is an important event in schools and universities in Tamil Eelam.

k. Lakshmi – consort of Brahma. Read Fisher, p. 90f. Goddess of wealth and beauty. Aspiring for wealth is a very legitimate religious/spiritual goal for Hindus along with three other – Artha, Kama, Dharma and Moksha.

l. And so on!

Monotheism

1. Both in the Vedic period as well as in the post-Vedic period Hindus speak of Hinduism as a “Monotheistic Faith”. Towards this they quote the Vedas that proclaim: ekam sadviprā bahudhā vadanti – that the truth, referring to God, is one, though the sages call by many names! And that one “ultimate reality” is known as Brahman.

2. The many gods of Hinduism, then, are the various manifestations, the multitude of human imaginations of this “invisible, indivisible, and ineffable” – absolute, attribute less reality, hence known as Nirguna Brhahman – one reality that is transcendent.

3. But that one Reality is also known as the one who creates and re-creates the visible world – the cosmos! At this point that one reality manifests with “attributes” and the Hindu devotees speak of Brahman then as Saguna Brahman – still one reality but immanent.

4. Upanishads, another collection of sacred literature (1000-500 BCE), is predominantly monotheistic in orientation!

A Hindu Seeing and Describing God

1. Professor Tiwari says that there “is an inherent faith in even the most illiterate of Hindus that, at bottom there is only one God and the various gods an goddesses are just his various forms or manifestations”.

2. “The average Hindu”, Professor Tiwari says further, “in his own unsophisticated manner believes that God has no definite shape and form”.

3. Then how do we explain the multitude of forms of the “Formless Ultimate Reality”? You need to take into account the following:

a. Hindu images of divine function symbolically to point beyond themselves to the “Ultimate and Infinite Reality”.

b. In some special sense the images are understood to manifest, or embody, the divine reality they represent!

c. When a craftsman has completed the task on an image, the reality is transferred into the object through “rituals”! But that is a “temporary” arrangement, often till the festival of a particular “deity”. When the festival is over the image is destroyed either by drowning in water or by consuming it in fire, reminding the devotees that image is not god!

d. During times of worship the “image” may be treated as if the image is the “living form”!

Questions to Explore:

1. Give a detail account of Siva (or Shiva), the supreme deity of the Saivites.

2. Discuss the Hindu conception of God.

3. How do Hindus resolve the contradiction within their concept of the deity?

4. Describe and discuss the importance of four goddesses of the Hindu pantheon.

Hindu Religion – An Introduction

We will explore the Hindu Religion thematically under the following themes:

1. Hindu Religion
2. Hindu Deities
3. Hindu Scriptures
4. Hindu Rituals
5. Hindu Doctrines
6. Hindu Denominations
7. Hindu Philosophies
8. Hindu Personalities

By discussing Hindu Religion under those eight themes it is hoped that a serious student will find answers to some of the fundamental questions connected to the seven dimensions of a religion – rituals, doctrines, myths/narratives, experiences, ethics/legalism, organization, and symbols/art and architecture – and in this case the Hindu Religion.

Very Important:

Please read Pat Fisher’s Living Religions, (7th Edition), pp. 72-119. Students should familiarize the “Key terms” (the words in page 118) and words in bold through pages 72-117 of Fisher’s book and become familiar with concepts behind those words!

There are also other introductory books that you may consult to appreciate the Hindu faith and practices. Among them are the following:

1. John L. Esposito, Darrell J. Fasching, and Todd Lewis, World Religions Today, (3rd Edition), Oxford University Press, 2009, pp. 301-387.

2. Willard G. Oxtoby & Alan F. Segal, editors, A Concise Introduction to World Religions, 2007, pp. 258-325.

Hindu Religion in a Nutshell

Hinduism is one of the world's oldest religions with about 900 million to 1.4 billion adherents worldwide. The bulk of the Hindus are from India, which has about 1 billion Hindu practitioners, roughly a little over 80% of India’s population. There are about 15 million Hindus in Pakistan and Bangladesh, two Muslim majority countries. In Nepal there are about 18 million Hindus, and about 15 million in Nepal.

There are large number of Hindus in Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Fiji, Myanmar, South Africa, and US!

There are large numbers of Hindus, immigrants from India living in the Western world. In the beginning of 2000 in Britain alone there were about 260,000 Hindus! The first Hindu Temple in North America was established as early as in 1906 in San Francisco! There are about 90 Hindu temples and worship centres – Ontario 65, Alberta 08, Quebec 06, British Columbia 05, Manitoba 03, one each in Saskatchewan, Nova Scotia, and New Foundland – in Canada. This excludes the many Sai Baba centres! There are at least 4 temples in Edmonton, the well known one being the Maha Ganapathy Temple in Running Creek Road, Edmonton!

Here are some facts from http://www.adherents.com/adh_predom.html

“The world's third largest religion, Hinduism, makes up the majority of the population of 3 nations: Nepal, India, and Mauritius. Balinese-style Hindus also make up 95% of the large population of Bali, in Indonesia.

It is interesting to note that although the majority of the world's Hindus live in India, the nation as a whole is only about 80% Hindu, and is an officially secular state, i.e., there is no state religion.

In Nepal a higher proportion of the population are Hindus than in India, and Nepal is the world's only official Hindu state. Freedom of worship is protected, but official state religion is Hinduism. As in many countries, religious proselytising is prohibited in Nepal.

In Mauritius, a bare majority of 54% of the population are Hindu.”

Hinduism has no single doctrine, and there is no single founder or teacher originating perhaps in the valley of River Indus, which is in modern day Pakistan around 3000 BCE.

Hindus believe in a universal eternal soul called Brahman, the creator God who preserves and destroys all that is created. However, Hindus do worship a multitude of deities. While worshipping a multitude of gods and goddess Hindus, following their sacred scriptures affirm “One God”. The Rig Veda says, “God is one and single, but the worshippers call God in a multitude of names!"

Hindus believe that existence is a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth – or reincarnation – governed by the principle of Karma. Hindus believe that the soul passes through a cycle of successive lives and its next incarnation is always dependent on how the previous life was lived.

Hindus in India may not have read the Vedas but still consider them as the most ancient religious Hindu texts heard by the ancient Hindu sages.

Some Problems in the Study of Hindu Religion:

1. Words such as “Hindu” and “Hinduism” are post 12th century CE and are imposition on a people by the outsiders! Even the word “religion” is not part of that phenomenon we call “Hindu” or “Hinduism”. The word the Hindus use is “dharma” instead of “religion”. However, Hindus today have begun to use the terms such as “religion”, “Hindu”, and “Hinduism” freely!

2. Hindus call their Hinduism – if we can use those terms – “sanātana dharma”, meaning eternal religion! Unlike other religions “sanātana dharma” has no founders, nor a historical moment of “founding”. Sir Charles Eliot once said, “Hinduism has not been made, but has grown”. It is the “beginning less” (anādi) character of this faith that provides a greater authority to this religion! (God, we may note, for a Hindu too, is “beginning less” and “end less”!)

3. It is one of the oldest living and thriving religions despite it being beaten and battered so many times by so many conquerors – Persians (Muslims) and Europeans (Christians) – Portuguese, Dutch, and English!

4. This religion – sanātana dharma – is not uniform or monolithic does not permit easy defining! Hinduism is simultaneously monotheistic, polytheistic, monistic, agnostic and even atheistic! How can that be? That’s the genius of sanātana dharma! Professor K.N. Tiwari said, “A polytheist is as much a Hindu, as a monotheist or a monist or even an atheist.” [Monism refers to a singular substance behind the multiplicity in form. Samkhya is an atheistic philosophical system that is one among the six philosophical systems of Hindu faith and practice. For the six systems please refer to: http://www.atmajyoti.org/sw_six_systems_of_hindu_philosophy.asp or go to http://www.indopedia.org/Hindu_philosophy.html]. The phenomenon described, as “Hinduism” is capable of accommodating all points of views – very pluralistic, and very liberal!

5. We may also notice the Hindu accommodation of some of the other distinct religions such as Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, etc as “other religious orders of Hindu Faith”! Hinduism thrives not by excluding but by including!

Meaning and Order in the Hindu Way:

A. The controversial Caste System - read Fisher, pages 99f – that goes back to the Vedic age is there to promote an orderly working of the Hindu community on the basis of “occupational groups”:

1. Brahmins – priests and philosophers
2. Kshatriyas – kings and warriors
3. Vaishyas – farmers and merchants
4. Shudras – manual laborers
5. Outcastes & Untouchables – Harijans and Dalits

B. Code of Manu compiled around 100 CE is the source of this system! You may want to explore the content of this controversial document!

C. Individual Hindu is expected to organize his life (confined to the males of the three upper castes) through various stages (ashramas) of life, which numbers four:

1. Brahmacharin – student hood
2. Grahastam – householder
3. Vanaprastham – Semi retirement
4. Sannyasin – Complete retirement and renouncement depending on others!

There is much debate around can women also participate in this process!

If you keep these entire rules you enter heaven, achieve liberation – the moksha, the goal of human life!

Questions to Explore:

1. Explain and critically comment the sevenfold definition of “Hindu Religion” provided by the Indian Supreme Court (found in page 116 of Fisher’s book).

2. Explain the strengths and limitations of the ancient Hindu caste system for achieving of “liberation” in today’s world.

Fall Term Paper Titles

Some of you were interested to know what themes your colleagues were working for their term papers. Below you will find the titles grouped tentatively. Later I may give each group a subtitle. I am very impressed with the cumulative work done by this group exploring a variety of religious themes. You may pick up your papers from me (my office 343 Arts Building) between 10.00 AM to 12.00 Noon on Friday (December 12, 2008)

Titles

Paganism – Spiritual and Polytheistic: Misunderstood
Initiation Rituals in Wicca
Symbols of Rastafarianism

Women and Islam: Evolving Identities
Prophet Muhammad, Messenger of Allah
Islamic Feminism
Women’s Role in Islam: Ideals and Realities
Women in Islam: The Disconnects

Echoing the Past: Persecution of the Baha’is in the Last Century

The Life and Teachings of Dalai Lama

Christian Martyrdom in the Early Christian Era: Faith Confronting the World
Mary Magdalene: The Woman Closest to Jesus
The Inquisition of Galileo Galilei
The Spanish Inquisition
Understanding the Trinity
Conceptualizing the Christian Trinity
Jesus Christ in the Holy Trinity & its Relevance for Contemporary Christian Faith
The Concept of God in Christianity
Christianity in Kenya: Evangelization of the Kikuyu
Russian Orthodox Religion – Beliefs, Traditions, and Ceremonies
Religion and ‘Abstinence-Only’ Sex Education
Glossolalia: Views on Speaking in Tongues
Reconsidering Exorcism

Pious Practices: Amish Sense of Community

Mormonism and Polygamy

Jesus in Jehovah’s Witnesses

The Branch Davidians & the Cult Controversy
Jonestown: Challenging Contemporary ‘Cults’

Marriage in the Middle Eastern Religions
Flood Stories – A Comparative Study
The Swastika

Church of Scientology and the Surrounding Controversies
An Introduction to Scientology
Scientology: Lacking in Religiosity
Scientology and its Popularity

The Hunter’s Horned God – The Devil as Transformed Magician

Hinduism: Past and Present
Vegetarianism in Hindu Spirituality
Becoming Jain: Jainism and its Ascetics

Kabbalah: Finding Purpose in Life

Shinto Beliefs and Practices
Shinto: Beauty in Spirits and Nature

Confucianism – A Religion at Three Levels

Fall End Examination

Office of Interdisciplinary Studies

Introduction to the Religions of the World
Religion 101 – C2 (2008-2009)
Fall Term-End Examination
December 09, 2008 Time: 2.00-4.00 PM

Part I

Answer all

1. The Christian doctrine _________________ speaks of Jesus as the divine Son.
2. Matthew, Mark and Luke whose writings are so similar that they are known as _________________ gospels.
3. Jesus was baptized by __________________.
4. The aspirations of Jesus recorded in Matthew 5:1-13 that begins with “Blessed are the poor in spirit” is known as the _______________.
5. Zealots, Sadducees, __________________, Scribes and Essenes are the religious contemporaries of Jesus.
6. The story of “____________________” attributed to Jesus encourages the need to live a life of compassion and be a good neighbour.
7. Christians worldwide generally accept the Apostles Creed and the __________ Creed.
8. St Theodosius and St Sergius are two good examples of the _______________ pattern of loving and world-directed monastic life.
9. The books that are included by the Catholics in the Sacred Scriptures but rejected by the Protestants are called __________________.
10. The prayer “Lord, make me an instrument of your peace” originated from ____________________.
11. ________________ are places where the early Christians gathered for worship and fellowship for the fear of persecution.
12. Martin Luther posted his ninety-five theses to the door of __________________ Cathedral inviting his colleagues to discuss and debate.
13. _____________________ is a revolutionary document produced by the Second Vatican Council that altered the Catholic relationship with the Muslims, Jews, Hindus, and Buddhists.
14. ___________________, the opening chapter of the Qur’an is considered the “Lord’s Prayer” of the Muslims.
15. __________________ is the sacred shrine in Mecca towards which all Muslims turn when they gather for prayers.
16. The author of Sirat Rasul Allah: The Life of Muhammad is _______________ (717-767 CE) and later biographers of Muhammad depend heavily on this earliest work.
17. _____________________ is Muhammad’s uncle who was opposed to Islam in the early days of Islam.
18. There are ________________ beautiful names of God that the Muslims use frequently to express their devotion to God.
19. __________________, a liberal Muslim scholar considers the Qur’an as “entirely the word of God and, in an ordinary sense, also entirely the word of Muhammad”.
20. Muslims believe that the Angel __________________ brought messages from God to Muhammad.
21. Qur’an refers to Tawrat, Zabur, and ____________ as sacred books that were revealed prior to the Qur’an.
22. ____________________ is a well known woman Sufi.
23. Sa’diyya Shaikh, Fatima Mernissi and ___________________ are three well-known contemporary women Islamic scholars.
24. Khaleda Zia, Hasina Wazed, and _____________________ are three prominent contemporary Muslim women in politics and all three of them are from South Asia.
25. Muslims are expected to participate in _____________, which is often mistranslated as “Holy War”.

Part II

Answer only two but choosing one from Christianity and the other from Islam

Christianity

1. Discuss the major Christian concerns of the following persons: David Vandiver, Blessed Teresa and Desmond M. Tutu.

2. Discuss the importance of the Second Vatican Council for contemporary Catholics.

3. Discuss the impact of “feminism” on the Contemporary Christians.

Islam

4. Describe the pre-Islamic Arabia identifying particularly the religions that existed there prior to the advent of Islam.

5. Explain the five pillars of Islam.

6. Identify five themes of the Qur’an and discuss in detail two of them.

Some Similarities and Differences: Judaism, Christianity and Islam

What you can do?

It is possible to compare Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad three persons somewhat connected to the beginning and development of these three religions – Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. But they belong to three different moments of history and three geographies with particular political and cultural contexts.

It is possible to compare three religious spaces and what happen there – Synagogue, Church, and a Mosque.

It is possible to compare the Tanak, New Testament, and Qur’an, the holy scriptures of the three religions that emerged from somewhat one region.

It is also possible to pick up a concept – for example, the concept of God or the concept of the Judgment of God – and compare contrast how the three religions look at that particular concept.

Why compare?

a. Some do it to prove the superiority of one over the others! There are plenty of examples for such approach particularly promote in the Internet! We do not go there!

b. Others may compare and contrast these religions to understand one or more better! By doing such comparative studies we may also clarify why people consider religion so important!

Similarities:

Cf. Ira G. Zepp, A Muslim Primer, Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2000. pp. 179-182.

1. Christianity and Islam share a joint legacy of a Biblical tradition and the same heritage of prophethood. Both religions come from Judaism, share the common parentage of Abraham, and delight in the Jewish Torah.

2. Islam and Christianity are both monotheistic religions and ascribe similar attributes to God: Creator, Sustainer, Judge, Forgiver, God and Allah both act in history to further causes of justice, peace, and harmony among all people.

3. Both religions are universal in scope, claiming to tran­scend differences of race, ethnicity, nationality, and color.

4. Christianity and Islam are both committed to praxis: a unification of faith and
life, prayer and action. They are strongly ethical religions. The Christian
unity of grace and law is similar to the unity of mercy and Shariah in Islam.

5. Both faiths make absolute claims to perfect truth about God. In this way they resemble most religions founded on divine revelation. As a result, when they speak, they are certain they are speaking in the name of the Absolute.

6. Christianity and Islam both say they purify and fulfill reli­gions that preceded
them: Christianity says this about Judaism, Islam about both Judaism and
Christianity.

7. Both religions believe that history has a goal and will cul­minate in the return of Christ or the Mahdi, both Messianic fig­ures,­ at the Last Day. Accompanying this is a common belief in Last Judgment, the resurrection, and an afterlife in heaven (the Garden) or hell (the Fire).

8. Islam and Christianity emphasize personal acts of piety such as prayer, fasting, charity and scripture reading. They share as well the prophetic call to help the oppressed, the poor, the widow, the orphan and the homeless.

9. Christianity and Islam are growing, dynamic religions with progressive, reactionary and mainstream dimensions. And in each, change is not betraying the core of the respective faith.

10. Both religions exemplify the human tendency to fall short of the ideas of founders and scriptures. Christianity fail to live up to the model of Jesus, and Muslims seldom achieves the standards set by the Qur’an. Both are united in human frailty but more importantly in the human aspiration to be the best Muslim or Christian.

Differences:

Cf. Alfred Guillaume, Islam, Baltimore: Penguin Book, 1975. pp. 194-199.

Here is Christian’s Apostle’s Creed and what is in italics are aspects that Muslims don’t accept! What is coloured is my emphasis to indicate that Judaism may accept only that part of the Christian Creed.

I believe in God, the Father Almighty,
Maker of heaven and earth.
And in Jesus Christ His only Son, our Lord
Who was conceived by the Holy Ghost,
Born of the Virgin Mary
Suffered under Pontius Pilate. Was crucified.
Dead? and buried. He descended into hell;
The third day He rose again from the dead.
He ascended into heaven,
And sitteth on the right hand of God
the Father Almighty;
From thence He shall come
to judge the quick and the dead.
I believe in the Holy Spirit;
The Holy Catholic Church;
The Communion of Saints;
The forgiveness of sins;
The Resurrection of the body,
and the life everlasting.